How Quicksand Works
Kevin Bonsor, howstuffworks
(General Audience)
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Photo glossary of volcano terms
Volcano Hazards Program, U.S. Geological Survey (USGS),
U.S. Department of the Interior
(General Audience)
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Deadly Lahars from Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia
Volcano Hazards Program, U.S. Geological Survey (USGS),
U.S. Department of the Interior
(General Audience)
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Pilot Project - Mount Rainier Volcano Lahar Warning System
Volcano Hazards Program, U.S. Geological Survey (USGS),
U.S. Department of the Interior
(General Audience)
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When Is Mud Dangerous? (slide show)
Exploring Earth, McDougal Littell, A Houghton Mifflin Company
(General Audience)
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Which do you consider to be more dangerous — mud or quicksand?
You may be surprised to discover that quicksand is not the terror
portrayed in the movies but
mudslides can prove especially deadly.
Quicksand
Quicksand is sand that, through infusion with water, has become saturated
until the mixture forms a suspension. Upward hydrostatic pressure
applied to the mix, such as from an underground spring, causes the
suspension to go into motion. The motion forces water molecules between
the sand grains, reducing intergranular pressure and frictional forces.
This quickening greatly reduces the ability of the sand to
support the weight of anything resting on its surface.
Because quicksand is denser than water, it is possible for you to float in
quicksand. However, the tendency for both people and animals that
venture into quicksand is to panic and struggle, which causes them to dig
deeper into the quagmire. Further exacerbating this situation is the
potential for quicksand to create a partial vacuum as an object is removed
(because air is unable to fill the void left by the object).
You can escape from quicksand, even without assistance, by moving
very slowly and attempting to bring your body to a horizontal position,
facing upward, so you can float. Once floating is achieved, you can
gradually “swim” toward firmer ground. Having an object to
lever yourself against, such as a large walking stick, can make the task
easier.
Quicksand can range in depth from a few inches to many feet. It is
most often found near rivers, streams and lakes, but may also be
encountered in hilly regions where loose soils are present and the water
table is near the surface. Being cautious and observant in such areas
and probing the soil ahead with a walking stick are the best ways to avoid
quicksand.
Mudslide, Debris Flow, Lahar
Mudslides and mudflows can range in consistency from muddy-looking water to
a course, pasty substance resembling wet concrete. Deep mud at rest
presents a hazard similar to that of quicksand, but may be more difficult
to escape because it possesses a more solid structure and, like quicksand,
can form a partial vacuum as an object is removed.
Mud is most dangerous when it flows. Because both water and earth are
dense, they possess high kinetic energy when in motion. A
mudslide or mudflow, being a combination of these two
materials, can acquire a great deal of momentum as it travels and
exerts considerable force on objects it comes in contact with. What
begins as a mudslide may become a
debris flow as the
moving mud picks up additional soil, rocks, trees, and even cars and
buildings.
Mudflows involving volcanic material are known as lahars.
Volcanic ash is very light, fine and loose material which flows easily in
the presence of water. Even the courser material derived from ejecta on
the slopes of most volcanoes is loosely packed and can easily be swept
into a lahar. Because volcanic ash is so susceptible to flow and because
volcanic slopes are devoid of vegetation for many years following an
eruptive event, lahars can be especially sudden, violent and
unpredictable. The threat of lahars can exist for many dozens of years
following a volcanic eruption.
Mudslides and debris flows pose a threefold hazard; they have the
ability to crush, bury and dislocate. The force exerted by flowing mud
and the debris it may carry can crush structures, people and animals. Mud
can flow around and over objects to entrap them or bury them entirely. For
humans and animals, this may result in death due to asphyxiation or
hypothermia. Finally, mudslides dislocate objects they come in contact
with. Dislocation can include the uprooting of trees, severing of utility
lines such as electric, telephone, gas, water and sewer (resulting in
additional hazards), tossing of vehicles off of roadways, and destruction
of roads, railways and bridges.
Numerous factors are instrumental in enabling mud to flow. Some of these
factors also relate to the behavior of quicksand, while others influence
the initiation and behavior of
landslides.
- Gravity and slope: Mud cannot readily begin to
flow on a flat surface, and too steep a slope will not permit large
volumes of loose material to accumulate. A moderate slope, especially
one having a slight inverted bowl shape, is optimal for initiating a
mudslide.
- Water: Either a rapid influx of water capable of
stripping loose soil or a sufficient volume of water to
saturate the existing soil structure is required to initiate a
mudslide. Mudslides usually occur when sustained rains or frequent
storms occur which eventually saturate soils. Heavy convective
downpours, such as from thunderstorms, can result in mudslides or
debris flows, usually in conjunction with flash flooding. Lahars may
occur in a similar fashion or as a result of rapid snowmelt or glacier
melting due to volcanic heating.
- Soil structure: Loose but relatively non-porous
soils are most susceptible to sliding. The ideal soil structure for
creation of a mudslide consists of a shallow layer of loose soil or
shale above a zone of impermeable rock or clay.
- Viscosity: Viscosity is resistance to
flow. More viscous materials such as clays are less likely to slide.
- Permeability: Highly permeable soils allow water
to percolate through and be removed; these will not generally slide
unless they sit atop a layer of lower permeability. Slopes composed of
moderately permeable soils, or those containing highly permeable soils
astride a less permeable layer, enable water to be absorbed but may not
be able to release water at a rate equal to the absorption rate.
Eventually, these slopes may slide.
- Hydrostatic pressure: Underground springs or
water percolating downward and collecting from points higher up a
hillside may exert upward hydrostatic pressure on a slope.
If the pressure is sufficient to overcome frictional forces, a mudslide
will result.
- Vibration: The large earth movements caused by
earthquakes are often responsible for both mudslides and landslides.
Earthquake shaking can also result in liquefaction, a condition
in which groundwater is forced to the surface, causing ordinarily solid
soil to temporarily behave in a manner similar to quicksand. Structures
built on soil undergoing liquefaction can actually sink into the ground,
which returns to its solid state once the shaking subsides. The
vibration generated by a large mudslide or landslide may contribute to
additional sliding.
- Cycles of heating and cooling: Diurnal (daily)
and seasonal cycles of heating and cooling, especially when freezing
and thawing take place, can break down rock into soils and shales prone
to sliding.
- Removal of vegetation: Reduction or removal of
vegetation through natural disasters such as fire, flood, prior
landslides or avalanches, or volcanic activity, or by human activity
such as lumbering, mining or home building makes hillsides far more
susceptible to mudslides and debris flows.
- Volcanic and geothermal heating: Heat from
beneath the Earth’s surface can result in snowmelt and melting
of glacial ice. During volcanic eruptions or movement of magma close
to the surface, the resulting lahars can be catastrophic.
It becomes clear that a complex array of conditions must be present in order
for a mudslide to take place. The severity of a mudslide will be
directly proportional to the intensity of the prevailing conditions;
however, not all of these conditions may be apparent or predictable.
It can often be difficult and expensive to determine whether a
particular location may slide.
Regions in which slides or slumps have occurred
(See Mass Wasting -
Landslides & Debris Flows for definitions.) should be
avoided during periods of moderate to high mudslide danger, and should
never be built upon or disturbed unless the intent is to improve drainage.
Residents or travelers in mountainous or hilly regions must be
extremely vigilant during periods in which flash flood or slide warnings
are present or when local downpours occur.
Authored by Kenneth L. Anderson.
Original article published 21 May 2004, updated 20 October
2004.
Follow links to the right to learn more about mud, quicksand, mudslides, debris flows and lahars.
At the left margin, Related Links address topics of interest
pertaining to geologic hazards and other security issues. View the
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for a complete list of security and consumer protection topics.
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